{"id":441,"date":"2014-11-12T13:14:17","date_gmt":"2014-11-12T18:14:17","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/www.sustainabilitylabs.org\/soil-enhancement\/?page_id=441"},"modified":"2015-08-03T19:51:57","modified_gmt":"2015-08-03T23:51:57","slug":"ecosystem-glossary","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/sustainabilitylabs.org\/ecosystem-restoration\/ecosystem-glossary\/","title":{"rendered":"Site Glossary and Resources"},"content":{"rendered":"<style type=\"text\/css\"> \n#cmsms_row_6a9aa868261a8 .cmsms_row_outer_parent { \n\tpadding-top: 12px; \n} \n\n#cmsms_row_6a9aa868261a8 .cmsms_row_outer_parent { \n\tpadding-bottom: 5px; \n} \n\n#cmsms_row_6a9aa868261a8 .cmsms_row_overlay { \n\tbackground-color: #e8e8e8; \n\topacity: 0.25; \n} \n\n#cmsms_row_6a9aa868261a8 .cmsms_row_inner.cmsms_row_fullwidth { \n\tpadding-left:5%; \n} \n#cmsms_row_6a9aa868261a8 .cmsms_row_inner.cmsms_row_fullwidth { \n\tpadding-right:5%; \n} \n<\/style><div id=\"cmsms_row_6a9aa868261a8\" class=\"cmsms_row cmsms_color_scheme_default fix-scroll topic-section-top\">\n<div id=\"dryland-summary\" class=\"cmsms_row_outer_parent\">\n<div class=\"cmsms_row_overlay\"><\/div>\n<div class=\"cmsms_row_outer\">\n<div class=\"cmsms_row_inner cmsms_row_fullwidth\">\n<div class=\"cmsms_row_margin\">\n<div class=\"cmsms_column one_first\">\n<style type=\"text\/css\"> \n#cmsms_heading_6a9aa868262a0, #cmsms_heading_6a9aa868262a0 a { \n\tfont-weight:400; \n\tfont-style:normal; \n\tmargin-top:0px; \n\tmargin-bottom:20px; \n} \n<\/style><h1 id=\"cmsms_heading_6a9aa868262a0\" class=\"cmsms_heading\">Section Summary<\/h1><div class=\"cmsms_text\">\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Research, education and dissemination are key objectives of Project Wadi Attir. This site summarizes related Ecosystem Restoration research and provides both an interactive scientific lexicon and links to a range of educational resources. An integrative academic-level research and monitoring program has been put into place to document progress in all aspects of dryland management and desertification control, including soil conservation and improvement, sustainable agricultural production methods, water use efficiency and enhanced biodiversity.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">A diverse range of educational activities are underway at the project site, whereby local students participate in research and volunteer projects as part of their high school curricula. Students have been involved in planting and maintenance activities onsite from the very beginning of the project.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">This page also will offer links to a growing supplementary collection of presentations and other useful resources at different levels, and in three languages, for scientific and educational use. Dissemination activities both to academic and public audiences are being conducted regularly.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Project Wadi Attir also aims to establish a network of collaborators in all aspects of sustainable dryland development, research, training, education and dissemination, both nationally and worldwide. Our team will be happy to respond to all enquiries, so please contact us using the form below.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<style type=\"text\/css\"> \n#cmsms_row_6a9aa868263e6 .cmsms_row_outer_parent { \n\tpadding-top: 80px; \n} \n\n#cmsms_row_6a9aa868263e6 .cmsms_row_outer_parent { \n\tpadding-bottom: 50px; \n} \n\n<\/style><div id=\"cmsms_row_6a9aa868263e6\" class=\"cmsms_row cmsms_color_scheme_default fix-scroll\">\n<div id=\"scientific-research\" class=\"cmsms_row_outer_parent\">\n<div class=\"cmsms_row_outer\">\n<div class=\"cmsms_row_inner\">\n<div class=\"cmsms_row_margin\">\n<div class=\"cmsms_column one_first\">\n<style type=\"text\/css\"> \n#cmsms_heading_6a9aa8682645e, #cmsms_heading_6a9aa8682645e a { \n\tfont-weight:400; \n\tfont-style:normal; \n\tmargin-top:0px; \n\tmargin-bottom:20px; \n} \n<\/style><h1 id=\"cmsms_heading_6a9aa8682645e\" class=\"cmsms_heading\">Scientific Research<\/h1>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<style type=\"text\/css\"> \n#cmsms_row_6a9aa8682648b .cmsms_row_outer_parent { \n\tpadding-top: 0px; \n} \n\n#cmsms_row_6a9aa8682648b .cmsms_row_outer_parent { \n\tpadding-bottom: 0px; \n} \n\n<\/style><div id=\"cmsms_row_6a9aa8682648b\" class=\"cmsms_row cmsms_color_scheme_default\">\n<div class=\"cmsms_row_outer_parent\">\n<div class=\"cmsms_row_outer\">\n<div class=\"cmsms_row_inner\">\n<div class=\"cmsms_row_margin\">\n<div class=\"cmsms_column one_first\">\n<div class=\"cmsms_text\">\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Project Wadi Attir and collaborating scientists are performing detailed scientific research and observations to document progress in project site rehabilitation. Current research subjects are the following:<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Soil improvement by soil conservation measures, and management approaches in agroforestry sites and protected shrubland plots. Parameters assessed are soil organic matter, soil nutrient content, soil water infiltration, soil moisture, and biomass productivity, which are being recorded periodically<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Evolution and succession patterns of plant and animal biodiversity in differently treated plots: conserved and degraded control plots, recovering shrubland plots and the riverbank, differently-treated limans and terraces, agroforestry woodlands composed of different tree species, and\u00a0<em>Acacia<\/em>woodland areas<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">The impact of various shrubs, trees, ants and other animal species on soil quality, hydrology and nutrient cycles<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Growth success, fruiting, fodder and wood production of various dryland and multipurpose trees and shrubs planted at Project Wadi Attir<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Selection and testing of additional, novel species or cultivars onsite, in runoff catchments or low-intensity irrigated dryland agroforestry<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Carbon sequestration into biomass and soils in various plots, woodland and liman areas<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Overall sustainability assessment of various technologies applied, in terms of inputs and outputs from an environmental and economic point of view<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">The progress reports on soil quality and biodiversity produced so far can be found below. The results of these studies will also be summarized for publication and dissemination, in order to implement the project\u2019s ideas at a local, regional and global scale.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Future Research Collaborations<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">A major project objective is sharing and exchanging our research and development efforts and technologies with others, to advance the evolution of worldwide sustainable dryland development strategies. Project Wadi Attir is therefore highly interested in participating in international research consortia in any of the above subjects.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<style type=\"text\/css\"> \n#cmsms_row_6a9aa868267d8 .cmsms_row_outer_parent { \n\tpadding-top: 60px; \n} \n\n#cmsms_row_6a9aa868267d8 .cmsms_row_outer_parent { \n\tpadding-bottom: 34px; \n} \n\n<\/style><div id=\"cmsms_row_6a9aa868267d8\" class=\"cmsms_row cmsms_color_scheme_default fix-scroll\">\n<div id=\"terms-glossary\" class=\"cmsms_row_outer_parent\">\n<div class=\"cmsms_row_outer\">\n<div class=\"cmsms_row_inner\">\n<div class=\"cmsms_row_margin\">\n<div class=\"cmsms_column one_first\">\n<style type=\"text\/css\"> \n#cmsms_heading_6a9aa86826825, #cmsms_heading_6a9aa86826825 a { \n\tfont-weight:400; \n\tfont-style:normal; \n\tmargin-top:0px; \n\tmargin-bottom:20px; \n} \n<\/style><h1 id=\"cmsms_heading_6a9aa86826825\" class=\"cmsms_heading\">Terms, Glossary, and Resource Links<\/h1>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<style type=\"text\/css\"> \n#cmsms_row_6a9aa868268ca .cmsms_row_outer_parent { \n\tpadding-top: 20px; \n} \n\n#cmsms_row_6a9aa868268ca .cmsms_row_outer_parent { \n\tpadding-bottom: 0px; \n} \n\n<\/style><div id=\"cmsms_row_6a9aa868268ca\" class=\"cmsms_row cmsms_color_scheme_default\">\n<div class=\"cmsms_row_outer_parent\">\n<div class=\"cmsms_row_outer\">\n<div class=\"cmsms_row_inner\">\n<div class=\"cmsms_row_margin\">\n<div class=\"cmsms_column one_first\">\n<div class=\"cmsms_text\">\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">The following are some short definitions of fundamental expressions in dryland environmental science. Most expressions are linked to Wikipedia, but we recommend following up on the reference lists provided in each Wikipedia entry for deeper understanding.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Agroforestry<\/strong>\u00a0(<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Agroforestry\">http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Agroforestry<\/a>):<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Agroforestry\u00a0or\u00a0agro-silviculture\u00a0is a land-use management system in which trees or shrubs are grown around or among crops or pastureland. It combines\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Agriculture\">agricultural<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Forestry\">forestry<\/a>\u00a0technologies to create more diverse, productive, profitable, healthy, and sustainable land-use systems.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Albedo<\/strong>\u00a0(<a href=\"https:\/\/www.esr.org\/outreach\/glossary\/albedo.html\">https:\/\/www.esr.org\/outreach\/glossary\/albedo.html<\/a>)<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Albedo is the fraction of solar energy (shortwave radiation) reflected from the Earth back into space. It is a measure of the reflectivity of the earth\u2019s surface. Ice, especially with snow on top of it, has a high albedo: most sunlight hitting the Earth\u2019s surface bounces back towards space. Water is much more absorbent and less reflective. Therefore, if there is a lot of water, more solar radiation is absorbed by the ocean then when ice dominates. Similarly, bare sand or rock has a high albedo compared to vegetated surfaces.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Biodiversity\u00a0<\/strong>(<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biodiversity\">http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biodiversity<\/a>)<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Biodiversity is a measure of the variety of organisms present in different ecosystems. This can refer to genetic variation, ecosystem variation, or species variation (number of species) within an area or ecosystem.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Biological Pest Control\u00a0<\/strong>(<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biological_pest_control\">http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biological_pest_control<\/a>)<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Biological control is a method of controlling pests (including insects, mites, weeds and plant diseases) using other living organisms. It relies on predation, parasitism, herbivory, or other natural mechanisms, but typically also involves an active human management role.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Bird Migration in Israel <\/strong>(<a href=\"http:\/\/goisrael.com\/tourism_eng\/articles\/attractions\/Pages\/bird%20watching.aspx\">http:\/\/goisrael.com\/tourism_eng\/articles\/attractions\/Pages\/bird%20watching.aspx<\/a>)<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">At least 500 million birds pass through Israel\u2019s skies twice a year during the migration season. In the fall, they make their way south to Africa and in the spring they return to Europe to mate and reproduce. Israel is located on a central migratory path, attracting both professional and amateur birders, photographers, and experts from all over the world.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Biosphere degradation\u00a0<\/strong>(<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environmental_degradation\">http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environmental_degradation<\/a>)<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the environment through depletion of resources such as air, water and soil; this results in the destruction of ecosystems and the extinction of wildlife.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Byzantine Empire\u00a0<\/strong>(<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Byzantine_Empire\">http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Byzantine_Empire<\/a>)<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">The Byzantine Empire, sometimes known as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the predominantly Greek-speaking continuation of the eastern half of the Roman Empire during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages. Its capital city was Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Carbon cycle\u00a0<\/strong>(<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carbon_cycle\">http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carbon_cycle<\/a>)<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Carbon is the central element of life, providing the backbone of all organic and bio-molecules. The\u00a0<strong>carbon cycle<\/strong>\u00a0is the biogeochemical cycle by which\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carbon\">carbon<\/a>\u00a0is exchanged between the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biosphere\">biosphere<\/a>,\u00a0the earth\u2019s crust,\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hydrosphere\">the<\/a>\u00a0oceans, and\u00a0the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Earth%27s_atmosphere\">atmosphere<\/a>. The carbon cycle comprises a sequence of events that are key to making the Earth capable of sustaining life; it describes the movement of carbon from inorganic forms such as carbon dioxide or carbonates into the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biosphere\">biosphere<\/a>\u00a0and back into inorganic forms by means of photosynthesis and respiration.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Carbon Sink<\/strong> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carbon_sink\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carbon_sink<\/a>)<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">A carbon sink is a natural or artificial reservoir that accumulates and stores carbon-containing compound for an extended period. The process by which carbon sinks remove carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere is known as carbon sequestration. Public awareness of the significance of CO2 sinks has grown since passage of the Kyoto Protocol, which promotes their use as a form of carbon offset. There are also different strategies used to enhance this process. The natural sinks are absorption of carbon dioxide by the oceans via physicochemical and biological processes, and photosynthesis by terrestrial plants<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Deserts and Desertification\u00a0<\/strong>(<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Desertification\">http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Desertification<\/a>)<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Deserts are areas receiving low amounts of precipitation, often inaccurately equaled to areas of low productivity or low biodiversity. Often the expression is wrongly applied to all drylands, areas where evaporation significantly exceeds precipitation. However, well protected and conserved dryland areas are everything but deserted, examples being the diverse Namib and Kalahari Deserts, or the Samburu or Sonora ecosystems, areas that are climatically similar to many parts of the highly degraded Negev. The process of transforming healthy dryland ecosystems into \u2018deserts\u2019 (deserted, denuded, bare landscapes) is called desertification: the degradation of dryland ecosystems by overgrazing, deforestation and agriculture. This process has been ongoing for thousands of years, since the development and spread of civilization and agriculture.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"aligncenter\">\n<div class=\"cmsms_img  cmsms_image_c\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/sustainabilitylabs.org\/ecosystem-restoration\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/11\/image131.png\"><img src=\"https:\/\/sustainabilitylabs.org\/ecosystem-restoration\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/11\/image131-1024x662.png\" alt=\"\" \/><\/a>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"cmsms_text fig-adjust\">\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><strong>Fig. 1: Global desertification vulnerability map (USDA) classifying the world\u2019s dryland areas according to their degradation risk<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"cmsms_text\">\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Drylands: <\/strong>(<a href=\"http:\/\/www.iucn.org\/about\/work\/programmes\/ecosystem_management\/about_work_global_prog_ecos_dry\/\">http:\/\/www.iucn.org\/about\/work\/programmes\/ecosystem_management\/about_work_global_prog_ecos_dry\/<\/a>)<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Drylands are areas receiving significantly less precipitation (P) than evaporation (PET) and are classified into the four categories shown in table 1. Drylands are erroneously called deserts, but to a large extent can be lush, dry evergreen forests or other seasonally diverse ecosystems. Examples of this are the Mediterranean Maquis or dry forest, the Sonora, the open dry African savannas such as the Samburu or the Kalahari, and other similarly diverse ecosystems.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Degradation of up to 80% of world\u2019s drylands has led to widespread application of the word desert to refer to all dryland areas, though this name adequately applies only to essentially lifeless areas that are naturally restricted only to parts of the hyper-arid climate zone.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Ecosystem<\/strong>\u00a0(<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ecosystem\">http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ecosystem<\/a>)<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">An ecosystem is a community of living organisms (plants, animals and microbes) interacting as a system in conjunction with the nonliving components of their environment (air, water and mineral soil), and directed by the local climate.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Endemic species<\/strong>\u00a0(<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Endemism\">http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Endemism<\/a>)<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Endemic species are unique to a defined geographic location, such as an island, nation, country or other defined zone or habitat type; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also found elsewhere. Protection of endemic species is of specific concern, as they are often found only in small areas and in small numbers. The opposite of endemism is cosmopolitan distribution. Wadi Attir holds a number of species endemic to this specific area of the Northeastern Negev as detailed in the file \u2018Plant Biodiversity\u2019.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Erosion <\/strong>(<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Erosion\">http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Erosion<\/a>)<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Erosion\u00a0is the action of\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Exogenic\">external<\/a>\u00a0forces such as\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Surface_runoff\">water flow<\/a>\u00a0or\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wind\">wind<\/a>\u00a0causing removal of\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil\">soil<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rock_(geology)\">rock<\/a>\u00a0from one location and its\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sediment_transport\">transport<\/a> to another location. While erosion is a natural process, human activities such as biosphere degradation have increased the rate at which erosion is occurring by 10-40 times globally. Excessive erosion causes averse impacts such as decreases in\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Agricultural_productivity\">agricultural productivity<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ecological_collapse\">ecological collapse<\/a>\u00a0due to the loss of nutrient-rich upper\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil_horizon\">soil layers<\/a>, a process that eventually results in\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Desertification\">desertification<\/a>. Off-site effects may include\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sediment#Erosion_and_agricultural_sediment_delivery_to_rivers\">sedimentation of waterways<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Eutrophication\">eutrophication<\/a>\u00a0of water bodies.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Flint\u00a0<\/strong>(<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Flint\">http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Flint<\/a>)<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Flint\u00a0is a hard form of the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mineral\">mineral<\/a>\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quartz\">quartz<\/a>. It occurs chiefly as\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nodule_(geology)\">nodules<\/a>\u00a0and masses in sedimentary rocks.\u00a0Inside the nodule, flint is usually dark grey, black, green, white, or brown in color, and often has a glassy or waxy appearance. A thin layer on the outside of the nodules is usually a different color, typically white and rough in texture. \u201cFlint\u201d refers specifically to the form which occurs in chalk or marly limestone. Flint was used in the manufacture of tools during the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stone_Age\">Stone Age<\/a>\u00a0as it splits into thin, sharp splinters called flakes or blades when struck by another hard object.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Food web<\/strong> (<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Food_web\">http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Food_web<\/a>)<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">A\u00a0<strong>food web<\/strong>\u00a0(or\u00a0<strong>food cycle<\/strong>) is the interconnection of\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Food_chain\">food chains<\/a>, generally an image of \u201cwhat-eats-what\u201d in an\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ecological_community\">ecological community<\/a>. Ecologists broadly classify all life forms into one of two categories, called\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Trophic_level\">trophic levels<\/a>: 1) the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Autotroph\">autotrophs<\/a>, and 2) the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Heterotrophs\">heterotrophs<\/a>. Autotrophs produce\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Organic_matter\">organic<\/a>\u00a0matter to grow, develop, and to\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reproduction\">reproduce<\/a> from\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inorganic\">inorganic<\/a>\u00a0substances, including\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mineral\">minerals<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carbon_dioxide\">carbon dioxide<\/a>, largely by\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Photosynthesis\">photosynthesis<\/a>.\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Heterotrophs\">Heterotrophs<\/a>\u00a0must feed either on plants (herbivores), other animals (carnivores) or on (normally) dead organic material (decomposers). The linkages in a food web illustrate the feeding pathways, such as where heterotrophs obtain organic matter by feeding on autotrophs and other heterotrophs. The food web is a simplified illustration of the various methods of feeding that link an ecosystem into a unified system of exchange.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">(See exercise examples at:\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www.superteacherworksheets.com\/food-chains\/food-web-worksheet_WMNRM.pdf\">http:\/\/www.superteacherworksheets.com\/food-chains\/food-web-worksheet_WMNRM.pdf<\/a>)<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Global Warming\u00a0<\/strong>(<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Global_warming\">http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Global_warming<\/a>)<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Global warming\u00a0and\u00a0climate change\u00a0refer to the observed century-scale rise in the average global temperature and its related effects. More than 90% of the additional energy stored in the climate system since 1970 has gone into ocean warming; the remainder has melted ice, and warmed the continents and atmosphere. The observed increases in global average surface temperature and atmospheric carbon dioxide have been much faster in recent decades than the natural changes of previous millennia, and levels are now higher than at any time for hundreds of thousands of years before.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Greenhouse Gases\u00a0<\/strong>(<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Greenhouse_gas\">http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Greenhouse_gas<\/a>)<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">A\u00a0greenhouse gas\u00a0(sometimes abbreviated\u00a0GHG) is a\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gas\">gas<\/a>\u00a0in the atmosphere that\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Absorption_(electromagnetic_radiation)\">absorbs<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Emission_(electromagnetic_radiation)\">emits<\/a>\u00a0radiation within the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Thermal_infrared\">thermal infrared<\/a>\u00a0range. This process is the fundamental cause of the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Greenhouse_effect\">greenhouse effect<\/a>. The primary greenhouse gases in the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Earth%27s_atmosphere\">Earth\u2019s atmosphere<\/a>\u00a0are\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Water_vapor\">water vapor<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carbon_dioxide\">carbon dioxide<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Methane\">methane<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nitrous_oxide\">nitrous oxide<\/a>, and\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ozone\">ozone<\/a>. Greenhouse gases greatly affect the temperature of the Earth; without them, Earth\u2019s surface would average about 33\u00b0C below the present average of 14\u00b0C. Human activities such as the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation have transferred large amounts of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, causing global warming.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Habitat\u00a0<\/strong>(<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Habitat\">http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Habitat<\/a>)<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">A\u00a0habitat\u00a0is an\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ecological\">ecological<\/a>\u00a0or\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_environment\">environmental<\/a>\u00a0area that is the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_environment\">natural environment<\/a>\u00a0in which an organism lives, or the physical environment that surrounds a species\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Population\">population<\/a>. A habitat is made up of physical factors such as\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil\">soil<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Moisture\">moisture<\/a>, range of\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Temperature\">temperature<\/a>, and availability of\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Light\">light<\/a>,\u00a0as well as\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biotic_index\">biotic<\/a> factors such as the availability of\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Food\">food<\/a>\u00a0and the presence of\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Predation\">predators<\/a>.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Harvester ants\u00a0<\/strong>(<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Harvester_ant\">http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Harvester_ant<\/a>)<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Harvester ant is a\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Common_name\">common name<\/a>\u00a0for any of the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Species\">species<\/a>\u00a0or\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genus\">genera<\/a>\u00a0of\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ant\">ants<\/a>\u00a0that collect\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Seed\">seeds<\/a>\u00a0(called\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Seed_predation\">seed predation<\/a>), which are stored in the nest in communal chambers called\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Granaries\">granaries<\/a>. Seed harvesting by some desert ants is an adaptation to the lack of typical ant resources. Harvester ants increase\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Seed_dispersal\">seed dispersal<\/a>, protection, and provide nutrients that increase seedling survivorship of the desert plants. In addition, ants provide soil\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aeration\">aeration<\/a>\u00a0through the creation of galleries and chambers, mix deep and upper layers of soil, and incorporate organic refuse into the soil.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Infiltration\u00a0<\/strong>(<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Infiltration_%28hydrology%29\">http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Infiltration_%28hydrology%29<\/a>)<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Infiltration\u00a0is the process by which water on the ground surface enters the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil\">soil<\/a>.\u00a0<em>Infiltration rate<\/em>\u00a0in\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil_science\">soil science<\/a>\u00a0is a measure of the rate at which soil is able to absorb\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rainfall\">rainfall<\/a>\u00a0or\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Irrigation\">irrigation<\/a>. It is measured in millimeters per hour. The rate decreases as the soil becomes saturated. If the precipitation rate exceeds the infiltration rate,\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Surface_runoff\">runoff<\/a>\u00a0will usually occur unless there is some physical barrier. The rate of infiltration can be measured using an\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Infiltrometer\">infiltrometer<\/a>.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Plant litter<\/strong>\u00a0(<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Plant_litter\">http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Plant_litter<\/a>)<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Litterfall,\u00a0plant litter,\u00a0leaf litter,\u00a0tree litter,\u00a0soil litter, or\u00a0duff, is dead\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Plant\">plant<\/a>\u00a0material, such as\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Leaf\">leaves<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bark\">bark<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Needle_(botany)\">needles<\/a>, and\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Twig\">twigs<\/a>\u00a0that have fallen to the ground. This\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Detritus\">detritus<\/a>,\u00a0or dead organic material, and its constituent nutrients are added to the top layer of soil, commonly known as the litter layer or\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/O_horizon\">O horizon<\/a>\u00a0(\u201cO\u201d for \u201corganic\u201d). Litter has occupied the attention of ecologists at length because it is an instrumental factor in ecosystem dynamics, it is indicative of ecological\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Productivity_(ecology)\">productivity<\/a>, and it may be useful in predicting regional\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nutrient_cycle\">nutrient cycling<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fertility_(soil)\">soil fertility<\/a>.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>LCA (Life Cycle Assessment<\/strong> <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Life-cycle_assessment\"><strong>http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Life-cycle_assessment<\/strong><\/a><strong>) <\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Life-cycle Assessment\u00a0is a technique used to assess environmental impacts associated with all the stages of a product&#8217;s life from cradle to grave (i.e., from raw material extraction through materials processing, manufacture, distribution, use, repair and maintenance, and disposal or recycling). LCAs can help avoid a narrow outlook on environmental concerns by:<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Compiling an inventory of relevant energy and material inputs and environmental releases;<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Evaluating the potential impacts associated with identified inputs and releases;<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Interpreting the results to help make a more informed decision;<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Liman <\/strong>(<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Liman_irrigation_system\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Liman_irrigation_system<\/a>)<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">A\u00a0Liman\u00a0(derived from Greek) in\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Israel\">Israel<\/a>\u00a0is the name for an artificial earthen construction used to collect floodwater by damming a desert\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wadi\">wadi<\/a> or gully (not to be confused with\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Liman_(landform)\">Liman (landform)<\/a>). The\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Runoff_water\">runoff water<\/a>\u00a0is slowed down by the dam, thus flooding a small area and allowing the water to infiltrate into the soil. This way, a small grove of trees can be sustained in the desert. Limans were built in order to fight\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Desertification\">desertification<\/a>\u00a0without depleting\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Groundwater\">groundwater<\/a>\u00a0resources, which are becoming increasingly rare in arid ecosystems.<sup><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Liman_irrigation_system#cite_note-Prinz-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Remaining soil humidity can be found in dry riverbeds (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wadis\">wadis<\/a>) after\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rain\">rains<\/a>\u00a0occur, but these\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wadis\">wadis<\/a>\u00a0are prone to\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Flash_floods\">flash floods<\/a>. The result is massive\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil_erosion\">soil erosion<\/a>\u00a0and the destruction of infrastructure. Also, the infiltration is insufficient because of the water&#8217;s velocity, even though the runoff would be able to allow for the growth of trees in appropriate places.<sup><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Liman_irrigation_system#cite_note-Wilson-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The aim of building limans is to stop flash floods and to increase water infiltration, thus sustaining the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Plant#Structure.2C_growth.2C_and_development\">growth<\/a>\u00a0of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Drought_tolerance\">drought-hardy<\/a>\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tree\">tree<\/a>\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Species\">species<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vegetation\">vegetation<\/a> underneath them.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Loess\u00a0<\/strong>(<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Loess\">http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Loess<\/a>)<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Loess is an\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aeolian_processes\">aeolian<\/a>\u00a0sediment formed by the accumulation of wind-blown\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Silt\">silt<\/a>, typically in the 20\u201350 micrometer size range, made up of roughly 20% (or less)\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Clay\">clay<\/a>,\u00a0with the remainder equal parts\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sand\">sand<\/a>\u00a0and silt\u00a0that are loosely cemented by\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Calcium_carbonate\">calcium carbonate<\/a>. It is usually homogeneous, highly porous, and traversed by vertical capillaries that permit the sediment to fracture and form vertical bluffs.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Nitrogen cycle\u00a0<\/strong>(<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nitrogen_cycle\">http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nitrogen_cycle<\/a>)<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">The\u00a0nitrogen cycle\u00a0is the process by which\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nitrogen\">nitrogen<\/a>\u00a0is converted between its various chemical forms, which can be carried out through both biological and physical processes. Important processes in the nitrogen cycle include\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nitrogen_fixation\">fixation<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ammonification\">ammonification<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nitrification\">nitrification<\/a>, and\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Denitrification\">denitrification<\/a>. The majority of\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Earth%27s_atmosphere\">Earth\u2019s atmosphere<\/a>\u00a0(78%) is\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nitrogen\">nitrogen<\/a>. However, atmospheric nitrogen has limited availability for biological use, leading to a scarcity of usable nitrogen in many types of ecosystems. The nitrogen cycle is of particular interest to\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ecologist\">ecologists<\/a>\u00a0because nitrogen availability can affect the rate of key ecosystem processes, including\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Primary_production\">primary production<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decomposition\">decomposition<\/a>. Human activities such as fossil fuel combustion, use of artificial nitrogen fertilizers, and the release of nitrogen in wastewater have dramatically\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human_impact_on_the_nitrogen_cycle\">altered the global nitrogen cycle<\/a>.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Nitrogen fixation<\/strong>\u00a0(<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nitrogen_fixation\">http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nitrogen_fixation<\/a>)<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Nitrogen fixation\u00a0is the process in which\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nitrogen\">nitrogen<\/a>\u00a0(N<sub>2<\/sub>) from the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Earth%27s_atmosphere\">atmosphere<\/a>\u00a0is converted into\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ammonium\">ammonium<\/a>\u00a0(NH<sub>4<\/sub><sup>+<\/sup>).\u00a0Atmospheric nitrogen or molecular nitrogen (N<sub>2<\/sub>) is relatively inert: it does not easily react with other chemicals to form new compounds. Nitrogen fixation, natural and synthetic, is essential for all forms of life because nitrogen is required to\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biosynthesis\">biosynthesize<\/a>\u00a0basic building blocks of plants, animals and other life forms. Therefore, nitrogen fixation is essential for agriculture and the manufacture of fertilizer. Nitrogen fixation occurs naturally in the air by means of\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lightning\">lightning<\/a>. Biological nitrogen fixation is done by way of\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nitrogenase\">nitrogenase<\/a>\u00a0metalo-enzymes. The only organisms that can fix nitrogen are\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Prokaryotes\">prokaryotes<\/a>\u00a0called\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Diazotroph\">diazotrophs<\/a>. Some higher plants, most prominently the legume family, have formed associations (<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Symbiosis\">symbiosis<\/a>) with diazotrophs and are \u2013 misleadingly \u2013 called \u2018nitrogen fixing plants.\u2019<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Permaculture\u00a0<\/strong>(<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Permaculture\">http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Permaculture<\/a>)<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Permaculture\u00a0is a branch of\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ecological_design\">ecological design<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ecological_engineering\">ecological engineering<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environmental_design\">environmental design<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Construction\">construction<\/a>\u00a0and <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Integrated_water_resources_management\">integrated water resources management<\/a>\u00a0that develops regenerative and self-maintained\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Habitat\">habitat<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Agricultural\">agricultural<\/a> systems modeled from natural\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ecosystems\">ecosystems<\/a>. The word\u00a0<em>permaculture<\/em>\u00a0originally referred to \u201cpermanent agriculture\u201d but was expanded to stand also for \u201cpermanent culture,\u201d as it was seen that social aspects were integral to a truly sustainable system as inspired by\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Masanobu_Fukuoka\">Masanobu Fukuoka<\/a>\u2019s\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_farming\">natural farming<\/a>\u00a0philosophy.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Permaculture is a philosophy of working with, rather than against, nature; of protracted and thoughtful observation, rather than protracted and thoughtless labor; and of looking at plants and animals in all their functions, rather than treating any area as a\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Monocropping\">single product system<\/a>.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Pesticide\u00a0<\/strong>(<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pesticide\">http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pesticide<\/a>)<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">A pesticide is a\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chemical\">chemical<\/a>\u00a0or biological agent that deters, incapacitates, kills, or otherwise discourages pests. Target pests can include insects, plant\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pathogen\">pathogens<\/a>, weeds, other animals, and\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microbe\">microbes<\/a>\u00a0that destroy agricultural crops, cause nuisance, spread disease, or are disease\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vector_(epidemiology)\">vectors<\/a>. Although pesticides have benefits, they also have serious drawbacks, such as potential toxicity to humans and other desired species, ecosystem disruption and the killing off of beneficial organisms. According to the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stockholm_Convention_on_Persistent_Organic_Pollutants\">Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants<\/a>, 9 of the 12 most dangerous and persistent\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Organic_chemicals\">organic chemicals<\/a>\u00a0are organochlorine pesticides that have contributed to the near-extinction of some raptor species.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Plant nutrients<\/strong>\u00a0(<a href=\"http:\/\/www.ncagr.gov\/cyber\/kidswrld\/plant\/nutrient.htm\">http:\/\/www.ncagr.gov\/cyber\/kidswrld\/plant\/nutrient.htm<\/a>)<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Sixteen chemical elements are known to be important for plant growth and survival. The sixteen chemical elements are divided into\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www.ncagr.gov\/cyber\/kidswrld\/plant\/nutrient.htm#Non-Mineral\"><strong>non-mineral<\/strong><\/a>\u00a0(C, O, H) and mineral elements. The 13 mineral nutrients are absorbed through plant roots, dissolved in water. The mineral nutrients are divided into two groups: macronutrients and micronutrients. Macronutrients can be broken into two more groups: primary and secondary nutrients.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">The primary nutrients are nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K). These major nutrients are usually limiting in soil because plants use large amounts for their growth and survival. The secondary nutrients are calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and sulfur (S). There are usually enough of these nutrients in the soil so fertilization is not always needed. In desert soils with high pH, iron can often be limited and is added in various forms.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Productivity\u00a0<\/strong>(<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Productivity_%28ecology%29\">http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Productivity_%28ecology%29<\/a>)<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">In\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ecology\">ecology<\/a>,\u00a0<strong>productivity<\/strong>\u00a0or\u00a0<strong>production<\/strong>\u00a0refers to the rate of generation of\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biomass_(ecology)\">biomass<\/a>\u00a0in an\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ecosystem\">ecosystem<\/a>. It is usually expressed in units of\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mass\">mass<\/a>\u00a0per unit surface, for instance\u00a0tons per hectare per year, but normally measured on much smaller areas. The mass unit may relate to the amount of\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dry_matter\">dry matter<\/a>\u00a0or to the mass of\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carbon-based_life\">carbon<\/a>\u00a0fixed. Productivity of <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Autotroph\">autotrophs<\/a>\u00a0such as\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Plant\">plants<\/a>\u00a0is called\u00a0<strong>primary productivity<\/strong>, while that of\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Heterotroph\">heterotrophs<\/a>\u00a0such as\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Animal\">animals<\/a>\u00a0is called <strong>secondary productivity.<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Runoff<\/strong>\u00a0(<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Surface_runoff\">http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Surface_runoff<\/a>)<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Surface runoff (also known as overland flow) is the flow of\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Water\">water<\/a>\u00a0that occurs when excess\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stormwater\">stormwater<\/a>\u00a0or other sources flow over the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Earth%27s_surface#Surface\">earth\u2019s surface<\/a>. This might occur because rain arrives more quickly than it can infiltrate into the soil, causing <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil\">soil<\/a>\u00a0to become\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Surface_runoff#Saturation_excess_overland_flow\">saturated<\/a>\u00a0to capacity, and is thus directly correlated with soil quality. Surface runoff is a major component of the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Water_cycle\">water cycle<\/a>. Runoff is the primary agent in\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil_erosion#Rainfall_and_runoff\">soil erosion by water<\/a>\u00a0and thus strongly affected by soil degradation and desertification.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>\u00a0<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Silvopasture\/silvipasture\u00a0<\/strong>(<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Silvopasture\">http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Silvopasture<\/a>)<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Silvopasture (Latin,\u00a0<em>silva<\/em>\u00a0forest) is the practice of combining\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Forestry\">forestry<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Grazing\">grazing<\/a>\u00a0of\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Domesticated_animal\">domesticated animals<\/a>\u00a0in a mutually beneficial way. Advantages of a properly managed silvopasture operation are enhanced soil protection and increased long-term income due to the simultaneous production of trees and grazing animals, or enhanced productivity due to mutually facilitating circumstances.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Perhaps the oldest\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Agroforestry\">agroforestry<\/a>\u00a0system used in the temperate regions of the world, silvopastoral systems are characterized by the integration of trees with forage and livestock production. Such systems have the potential to increase agricultural production sustainability in the long term.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Soil degradation\u00a0<\/strong>(<a href=\"http:\/\/www.fao.org\/soils-portal\/soil-degradation-restoration\/en\/\">http:\/\/www.fao.org\/soils-portal\/soil-degradation-restoration\/en\/<\/a>)<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Soil degradation is defined as a change in the soil health status resulting in a diminished capacity of the ecosystem to provide goods and services for its beneficiaries. Degraded soils have a health status that can not provide the normal goods and services expected in this ecosystem. These definitions, which largely follow the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www.fao.org\/nr\/lada\/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=frontpage&amp;Itemid=75&amp;lang=en\">LADA<\/a>\u00a0definition of land degradation, are important in order to capture the complexity of the degradation processes and their subjective evaluation by different stakeholders.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Soil organic matter\u00a0<\/strong>(<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil_organic_matter\">http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil_organic_matter<\/a>)<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Soil organic matter\u00a0(SOM) is the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Organic_matter\">organic matter<\/a>\u00a0component of\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil\">soil<\/a>. SOM exerts numerous positive effects on soil\u2019s physical and chemical properties, as well as the soil\u2019s capacity to provide regulatory\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ecosystem_services\">ecosystem services<\/a>. SOM\u2019s effects on soil function include improvements related to\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil_structure\">soil structure<\/a>, aggregation, water retention, soil <a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biodiversity\">biodiversity<\/a>, absorption and retention of\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pollutants\">pollutants<\/a>, buffering capacity, and the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nutrient_cycling\">cycling<\/a>\u00a0and storage of\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nutrients\">plant nutrients<\/a>. SOM increases\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil_fertility\">soil fertility<\/a>\u00a0by providing\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cation-exchange_capacity\">cation-exchange<\/a>\u00a0sites and acting as a reserve of\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Plant_nutrition\">plant nutrients<\/a>, especially\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nitrogen\">nitrogen<\/a>\u00a0(N),\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Phosphorus\">phosphorus<\/a>\u00a0(P), and\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sulfur\">sulfur<\/a>\u00a0(S), along with\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Micronutrients\">micronutrients<\/a>. As such, there is a significant correlation between SOM content and soil fertility. SOM is also a major carbon sink by means of\u00a0greenhouse gas sequestration into soil carbon (C).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Stone age\u00a0<\/strong>(<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stone_Age\">http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stone_Age<\/a>)<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">The Stone Age is a broad\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Prehistory\">prehistoric<\/a>\u00a0period during which\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rock_(geology)\">stone<\/a>\u00a0was widely used to make implements with a sharp edge, a point, or a percussion surface. The period lasted roughly 3.4 million years, and ended between 6000\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Common_Era\">BCE<\/a> and 2000 BCE with the advent of\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metalworking\">metalworking<\/a>. Stone Age artifacts include tools used by modern humans and by their predecessor species in the genus\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Homo\"><em>Homo<\/em><\/a>.\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bone_tool\">Bone tools<\/a>\u00a0were used during this period as well but are rarely preserved in the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Archaeological_record\">archaeological record<\/a>. The Stone Age is further subdivided by the types of\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stone_tool\">stone tools<\/a>\u00a0in use.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">The Stone Age is the first in the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Three-age_system\">three-age system<\/a>\u00a0of\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Archaeology\">archaeology<\/a>, which divides human technological\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Prehistory\">prehistory<\/a>\u00a0into three periods:<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">The\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stone_Age\" target=\"_blank\">Stone Age<\/a><\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">The\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bronze_Age\">Bronze Age<\/a><\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">The\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Iron_Age\">Iron Age<\/a><\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><strong>Sustainability<\/strong> (<a href=\"http:\/\/www.sustainabilitylabs.org\/approach#sustainability\">http:\/\/www.sustainabilitylabs.org\/approach#sustainability<\/a>) :<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">An important goal of Project Wadi Attir is the effective application of the Five Core Principles of sustainability developed at The Sustainability Laboratory (<a href=\"http:\/\/www.sustainabilitylabs.org\">www.sustainabilitylabs.org<\/a>). These principles are rooted in a perspective which defines sustainability as a particular type of dynamic equilibrium in the process of interaction between a population and the carrying capacity of its environment.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">The principles are expressed in relation to five fundamental domains:<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><em>The Material Domain:<\/em> Constitutes the basis for regulating the flow of materials and energy that underlie existence.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><em>The Economic Domain:<\/em> Provides a guiding framework for creating and managing wealth.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><em>The Domain of Life:<\/em> Provides the basis for appropriate behavior in the biosphere.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><em>The Social Domain:<\/em> Provides the basis for social interactions.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><em>The Spiritual or Value Domain:<\/em> Identifies the necessary attitudinal orientation and provides the basis for a universal code of ethics.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<style type=\"text\/css\"> \n#cmsms_row_6a9aa8682a397 .cmsms_row_outer_parent { \n\tpadding-top: 60px; \n} \n\n#cmsms_row_6a9aa8682a397 .cmsms_row_outer_parent { \n\tpadding-bottom: 34px; \n} \n\n<\/style><div id=\"cmsms_row_6a9aa8682a397\" class=\"cmsms_row cmsms_color_scheme_default fix-scroll\">\n<div id=\"selected-readings\" class=\"cmsms_row_outer_parent\">\n<div class=\"cmsms_row_outer\">\n<div class=\"cmsms_row_inner\">\n<div class=\"cmsms_row_margin\">\n<div class=\"cmsms_column one_first\">\n<style type=\"text\/css\"> \n#cmsms_heading_6a9aa8682a401, #cmsms_heading_6a9aa8682a401 a { \n\tfont-weight:400; \n\tfont-style:normal; \n\tmargin-top:0px; \n\tmargin-bottom:20px; \n} \n<\/style><h1 id=\"cmsms_heading_6a9aa8682a401\" class=\"cmsms_heading\">Selected Readings<\/h1>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<style type=\"text\/css\"> \n#cmsms_row_6a9aa8682a436 .cmsms_row_outer_parent { \n\tpadding-top: 20px; \n} \n\n#cmsms_row_6a9aa8682a436 .cmsms_row_outer_parent { \n\tpadding-bottom: 0px; \n} \n\n<\/style><div id=\"cmsms_row_6a9aa8682a436\" class=\"cmsms_row cmsms_color_scheme_default\">\n<div class=\"cmsms_row_outer_parent\">\n<div class=\"cmsms_row_outer\">\n<div class=\"cmsms_row_inner\">\n<div class=\"cmsms_row_margin\">\n<div class=\"cmsms_column one_first\">\n<div class=\"cmsms_text\">\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Abu Rabia, K. Solowey, E. And Leu, S. (2009). Desert Agriculture of the Negev Bedouin: Potential for Socio-Economic Development and Ecological Rehabilitation. Management of Environmental Quality 19, No. 3, 353 \u2013 366.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Boeken, B. and Shachak, M. 1994. Changes in desert plant communities in human-made patches in and their implications for the management of deserti\ufb01ed landscapes. Ecological Applications 4: 702\u2013716.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Boeken, B., Shachak, M., 1998. Colonization by annual plants of an experimentally altered desert landscape: source\u2013sink relationships. Journal of Ecology 86 (5), 804\u2013814.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Diacono, M. and Montemurro, F. 2010. Long-term effects of organic amendments on soil fertility. A review. Agronomical Sustainable Development 30: 411-422.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Dregne, H.E. 1978. Desertification: Man \u2018s Abuse of the Land. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 33: 11-14.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Fischer, R.A. and Turner, N.C. 1978. Plant productivity in the arid and semiarid zones Annual Review of Plant Physiology 29: 277-317<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">GAIA An Atlas of Planet Management, Norman Myers ed.,Anchor Books 1993;<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Golodets, C., Boeken B. 2004. Moderate sheep grazing in semiarid shrubland alters<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Grainger, A., Smith, M.S., Squires, V.R. and Glenn, E.P. 2000. Desertification and climate change: The case for greater convergence. Mitigation Adapt. Strategies Global Change 5: 361\u2013377.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Helman, D., Lensky, I., Mor- Mussery, A., Leu, S., (2013) Creating woodland islets improve ecosystem function in long-term degraded drylands. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 195\u2013196 (2014) 52\u201360.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Helman, D., Mussery, A., Lensky, I. M. and Leu, S. (2014) Detecting changes in biomass productivity in a different land management regimes in drylands using satellite-derived vegetation index. Soil Use and Management, 30: 32\u201339. doi: 10.1111\/sum.12099<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Hussein, M.A. 2008. Costs of environmental Degradation: An analysis in the Middle East and North Africa region. Management and Environmental Quality 19: 305-317.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Kassas, M. 1995. Desertification: a general review. Journal of Arid Environment 30: 455-464.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">K\u00e9fi S, Rietkerk M, Alados CL, Pueyo Y, Papanastasis VP. ElAich A, de Ruiter PC (2007) Spatial vegetation patterns and imminent desertification in Mediterranean arid ecosystems. Nature 449: 213-217.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Lal, R. 2001. Potential of desertification control to sequester carbon and mitigate the greenhouse effect. Climatic Change 51: 35\u201372.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Lal, R. Soil Carbon Sequestration Impacts on Global Climate Change and Food Security. Science 304: 1623.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Leu S. (1990) Forests and Carbon Dioxide, Swiss Review of World Affairs No. 2 (Verlag NZZ, Z\u00fcrich, Switzerland), 10-13.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Leu S. and A. Michaels (1990) Photosynthetic capacity to solve the carbon dioxide problem. In: Current Research in Photosynthesis III (Baltscheffsky M. ed.) Kluwer Acad. Publ., Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 811-814.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Leu Stefan, Mor Mussery Amir &amp; Budovsky Arie (2014) The Effects of Long Time Conservation of Heavily Grazed Shrubland: A Case Study in the Northern Negev, Israel; Environmental Management, DOI 10.1007\/s00267-014-0286-y.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Leu, S. (2006) Dryland Agroforestry for Biomass, Food, Carbon Sequestration and Desert Rehabilitation, in: Proceedings of the 14th European Congress on Biomass for Energy, Agriculture and Climate Protection, 341-344.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Leu, S. (2010). Forests and Climate: The Search for Specifics. Science, 328, 1479.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Mor-Mussery Amir, Leu Stefan, Arie Budovsky &amp; Itamar Lensky (2014): Plant-Soil Interactions and Desertification: A Case Study in the Northern Negev, Israel, Arid Land Research and Management, DOI: 10.1080\/15324982.2014.933455<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Mor-Mussery, A., Leu, S., Budovsky A. (2013) Modeling the optimal grazing regime of\u00a0<em>Acacia victoriae<\/em>silvopasture in the Northern Negev, Israel Journal of Arid Environments 94, 27 \u2013 36.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Mor-Mussery, A., Leu, S., Lensky, I. and Budovsky, A. 2013. The effect of planting techniques on arid ecosystems in the Northern Negev. Arid Land Research and Management 27:90-100.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Reid, K.D., Wilcox, B.P., Breshears, D.D. and MacDonald, L. 1999. Runoff and erosion in Pinon-Juniper woodland: influence of vegetation patches. Soil Science Society of America Journal 63: 1869-1879.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Ruddimann, W.F. 2003. The anthropogenic greenhouse effect era began thousands of years ago. Climatic Change 61: 261\u2013293.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Safriel, U. and Adeel, Z. 2005. Dryland Systems, in: Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Current State and Trends. Publisher: Island Press Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Series Vol. 1 (http:\/\/www.millenniumassessment.org\/documents\/document.291.aspx.pdf).<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Sava, R. 1994. Guide to sampling, Air, Water, Soil and vegetation for chemical analysis, Environmental protection agency, Department of pesticide regulation, Environmental Monitoring and pest management branch. California<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Shachak, M., Boeken, B., Groner, E., Kadmon, R., Lubin, Y., Meron, E., Ne\u2019eman, G., Perevolotsky, A., Shkedy, Y. and Ungar, E. 2008. Woody species as landscape modulators and their effect on biodiversity patterns.<em>BioScience<\/em>58: 209-221.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Shachak, M., Sachs, M. and Moshe, I. (1998) Ecosystem Management of Desertified Shrublands in Israel. Ecosystems 1: 475-483.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Sharma, K.D. 1998. The hydrological indicators of desertification. Journal of Arid Environments 39: 121-132.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Sparks, D.L. 1999. Environmental Soil Chemistry, Academic press, 2nd edition.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">USDA (1999) Soil taxonomy. A basic system of soil classification for making and interpreting Soil Surveys, 2<sup>nd<\/sup>edition, United States Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service, Available online at: ftp:\/\/fc.sc.egov.usda.gov\/NSSC\/Soil_Taxonomy\/tax.pdf (accessed at 12\/2010).<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">Whitford, W.G. 1993. Animal feedback in desertification: an overview. Revista Chilena de Historia Natural 66:243-251. Available online at: http:\/\/rchn.biologiachile.cl\/pdfs\/1993\/3\/Whitford_1993.pdf.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"_exactmetrics_skip_tracking":false,"footnotes":""},"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/sustainabilitylabs.org\/ecosystem-restoration\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/441"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/sustainabilitylabs.org\/ecosystem-restoration\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/sustainabilitylabs.org\/ecosystem-restoration\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/sustainabilitylabs.org\/ecosystem-restoration\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/sustainabilitylabs.org\/ecosystem-restoration\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=441"}],"version-history":[{"count":10,"href":"https:\/\/sustainabilitylabs.org\/ecosystem-restoration\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/441\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1465,"href":"https:\/\/sustainabilitylabs.org\/ecosystem-restoration\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/441\/revisions\/1465"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/sustainabilitylabs.org\/ecosystem-restoration\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=441"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}